The Borders of Liberia

Liberia has always held a unique place in African history. As can be seen from the map below of pre-colonial Africa, Liberia was never part of any major empire prior to its settlement by the American Colonization Society in the 1820's.

"Before European colonization. 7th to 16th century," My Continent Africa, accessed August 18, 2016, http://mycontinent.co/AfricaBorders.php.

When the "Scramble for Africa" began, the settlers who came with the ACS  were hard-pressed to stand their ground against the pressures of other colonizing countries, particularly the British and the French. Towards the end of 19th century, Liberia lost a fair amount of territory that was rich in resources to their neighbors.[1] However, by the time of the First World War, Liberia's borders - unlike the majority of other African countries - had pretty much been set:

"European territorial claims on the African continent in 1914," My Continent Africa, accessed August 18, 2016, http://mycontinent.co/AfricaBorders.php.

The fact that Liberia's borders have remained relatively stable does not mean, however, that they are organic in relation to the ethnic groups that make this territory their home. As the following map shows, Liberia's international borders cut through the tribal territories of the Vai, the Kissi, the Dan (or Gio), the Mano, the Loma, and more.

People groups across borders in western Africa
Poro Studies Association, accessed August 18, 2016, http://www.porostudiesassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/MAP-working-copy-5_12_13-9PM-Merged1.jpg.

Having international borders that bisect ethnic groups has played a large part in the economic chaos that has plagued Liberia and other countries in the region. Whereas national economic recovery is largely dependent on accurate reporting and taxation, especially in such lucrative goods as diamonds, gold, and timber, the black market trading across unsecured borders detracts a huge amount of revenue for the country every year. While it is simply human nature to want to better your own financial standing and that of your relatives and tribesmen, this practice is extremely detrimental to the progress of the country of Liberia as a whole.


During the recent ebola outbreak, the issue of borders became a very hotly debated topic, as every effort was being made to contain the spread of the disease. As is described in the video below, there are dozens and dozens of unofficial border crossings, as people have family members who live on both sides of the border. Trying to close these borders in the event of a health crisis such as ebola proved both ineffective and next to impossible.

Video courtesy Benno Muchler, "At Porous Liberia Border, Vigilant People Prevent Spread of Ebola," VOA, April 7, 2015, accessed August 18, 2016, http://www.voanews.com/a/at-porous-border-vigilant-people-prevent-ebola-spreading/2709404.html.

[1] "Liberia: History," Encyclopedia.com, accessed August 18, 2016,  http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Liberia.aspx.

Missionary Influence in Liberia

Earliest Missions Activity

Along with the arrival of American settlers in Liberia came the desire to preserve and spread their faith through missionary activity. 

The Baptists claim to be the first denomination to enter Liberia. Two black families from Virginia were commissioned in 1821 to pioneer the work: that of Colin Teage and that of Lott Cary.[1]

Lott Carey
  Photo Source: Unknown author, Lott Carey, c. 1825, accessed August 12, 2016, http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1701-1800/lott-carey-11630295.html.

The group worked in Sierra Leone for a time before getting established in Liberia in 1822. After that, Teage and his family went back to Sierra Leone, while Cary remained with his family in Liberia. Meanwhile, Cary not only planted a church in Liberia, but also became involved in the government of the newly founded colony. Tragically, Cary was killed in a munitions explosion in 1828 [2], after which the Teage family returned to Liberia to continue the work, co-pastoring the Providence Baptist Church in Monrovia, which Cary had founded. [3] 

Providence Baptist Church - Monrovia, Liberia
Photo source: Dave Almack, Providence Baptist Church where the nation of Liberia was founded, 2012, accessed August 12, 2016, https://faithlit.wordpress.com/2012/02/.

One of the founders of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Daniel Coker, however, had also already set sail with the first group of settlers aboard the ship Elizabeth in 1820, intending to establish a church of their own in Liberia. Later, when Coker's missionary teammates died, he decided to move on with a group to Sierra Leone and establish a church in Freetown. He remained the leader of that church until he died in 1846. [4]

Daniel Coker 

Photo Source: Unknown author, Daniel Coker, African-American missionary to Sierra Leone, 1820, Public domain, accessed August 12, 2016,  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Coker#/media/File:Daniel_Coker,_Sierra_Leone,_AME,_1820.JPG.

The Protestant Episcopal Church began organizing a mission to Liberia in 1821, but their work was delayed by several years when first one missionary was refused passage by the Colonization Society, then later a second missionary passed away just before his departure. By 1833, however, an Episcopal church known as St. James' had set down roots, drawing from within the settlers themselves, as opposed to bringing in foreign missionaries from the U.S. [5]

Impact of Missions

Unfortunately, good intentions did not necessarily lead to good practices. As the colonizing ex-slaves found their way in their new "homeland," often political influence came before spiritual influence. They came to be seen as outsiders by the native tribes, and Christianity was viewed as an American anomaly. [6]

Outreach to the native tribes was a slow development, and yet certainly there were safety considerations to be made. Sadly, it was more than just safety precautions that damaged the witness of the Americo-Liberians to the indigenous tribes. 

Joseph C. Wold, author of God's Impatience in Liberia, summarizes the obstacles:

“First the wars between the pagan tribes and settlers kept the former geographical isolated from the Christians. Second, the tribesmen never considered Christianity a real possibility for themselves because it was identified with a foreign culture.  And third, unfortunately, the moral laxness and social injustice of the settlers in their relation with the tribes did not commend Christianity as a way of life.”[7]

So unfortunately, faith in Liberia has still not reached ever corner of the country. "Superficial Christianity became a way of life of the people for more than a century.  Even today Christianity in some major cities of Liberia still bears the brunt of a Christianity that has 'a form of godliness but denying its power' (2 Tim. 3:5)." [8] 

The message of the Gospel is further obscured by mixing in influences of Freemasonry and the secret societies native to this region of Africa. "Since many top Church leaders were deeply rooted in secret societies, the Church tolerated the practices to the extent that they comingled with worship services in certain mainline Churches." [9]

Nevertheless, more than 10% of Liberians today are evangelical Christians. That puts it at the highest progress level of "5 - significantly reached" according to the Joshua Project. [10] Still, Liberia remains a target for Islamization in Africa [11], and is engaged in the continued struggle against the influence of animistic practices.



[1] William A. Poe, "Not Christopolis but Christ and Caesar: Baptist Leadership in Liberia," Journal of Church and State 24, no. 3 (1982): 536, accessed August 11, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23916665.
[2] Diane Severance, "Lott Carey," Church History Timeline on Christianity.com, accessed August 12, 2016, http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1701-1800/lott-carey-11630295.html.
[3] Alan Neely, "Teague, Colin," in Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions, ed. Gerald H. Anderson (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 1998), 660, reprinted with permission in "Teague, Colin [Teage, Collin] (c. 1780-1839): Pioneer African American Baptist Missionary to Africa," History of Missiology, Boston University School of Theology, accessed August 12, 2016, http://www.bu.edu/missiology/missionary-biography/t-u-v/teague-colin-collin-teage-c-1780-1839/.
[4] Rachel Gallaher, "Coker, Daniel 91780-1846)," Blackpast.org, accessed August 11, 2016, http://www.blackpast.org/aah/coker-daniel-1780-1846.
[5] George D. Browne, "History of the Protestant Episcopal Mission in Liberia up to 1838," Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 39, no. 1 (1970): 18, accessed August 11, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42973243.
[6] "History of Liberia," Vision Liberia 2027, accessed August 12, 2016, http://www.liberia2027.com/627324.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid.[10] "Country: Liberia," Joshua Project, accessed August 12, 2016, https://joshuaproject.net/countries/LI.
[11] "Liberia," Operation World, accessed August 12, 2016, http://www.operationworld.org/libe.

First Outside Contacts

Earliest Outside Contacts

Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginian explorer, and his sailors were probably the first white men to arrive in Liberia in the year 520 B.C. Along the coast near Cape Mount, Hanno encountered the Gola people. There were some initial attempts at trade, but the relationship did not develop into anything long-term.[1]

Map of Hanno the Navigator's Expedition:

Map of Hanno the Navigator's Expedition
Source: By Bourrichon - travail personnel (own work) + File:Africa topography map.png (relief bitmap embedded in the svg) + File:Periplo de Hannón.jpg (data), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6634807


Cape Mount, Liberia, where Hanno the Navigator may have landed:

Photo of Grand Cape Mount, Liberia, where Hanno the Navigator may have landed
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/280138039291719812/

Earliest European Contacts

While the Portuguese are often considered to have had the earliest significant contact with the area that is now Liberia in the fifteenth century [2], there were other, more minor, contacts prior to that:

"About 1364 the Normans settled (temporarily) at a few places on the coast of Liberia and started trading with the coastal tribes from whom they bought ivory, pepper, gold and camwood. The Portuguese also frequented the Liberian coast as from (sic) this period and soon even controlled the trade." [3]

The Portuguese began staking their claim in North Africa and worked their way south:

"In 1415, the Portuguese captured the city of Ceuta from the Arabs on the coast of modern Morocco. The Portuguese advanced along the western, southern, and eastern coasts of Africa, including the coastal areas of pre-Liberia. By 1460, Portuguese geographers had mapped the coastal area between Senegal and Sherbro. Portugal's king, Alfonso V, established a monopoly over the Grain Coast trade of pre-Liberia in 1460, as clarified in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas signed by Portugal and Spain." [4]

The lasting influence of the Portuguese is still evident in the names of some of the rivers, regions, and mountains of Liberia. However, their corner on the market would not last for long. Soon other European countries were vying for piece of the pie as well. France, England, Denmark, and the Netherlands all had an interest in pursuing trade in new markets. 

One major product gained in the area was the Malagueta pepper. Hence, the area became known as the "Malagueta Coast," the "Pepper Coast," and the "Grain Coast," as it was called the "Grain of Paradise" by the English and the Dutch.[5] In addition to the peppers, the presence of gold on the Gold Coast was, of course, too enticing to pass up.[6]


Photo of Malagueta peppers (Capsicum frutescens)
Source: https://worldcrops.org/crops/malagueta-pepper

Non-European Contacts

The substantial Muslim presence in Liberia comes primarily from the spread of Islam from Morocco in the tenth century. Several of the tribes, including the Mandingo, joined their king in embracing the new religion. [7] 

Later, there was an influx of Lebanese to Liberia, and today they make up a significant minority of the population.

Asian interest in Liberia has also become a significant factor in its more recent history, with China becoming a major player in Liberia's economy. 

[1] Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, "The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822," Liberia Past and Present, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.
[2] Amos J. Beyan, "Transatlantic Trade and the Coastal Area of Pre-Liberia," The Historian 57, No. 4 (Summer 1995) :757, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24449267.
[3]  Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, "The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822," Liberia Past and Present, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.
[4] Amos J. Beyan, "Transatlantic Trade and the Coastal Area of Pre-Liberia," The Historian 57, No. 4 (Summer 1995) :760, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24449267.
[5]  Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, "The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822," Liberia Past and Present, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.
[6] Amos J. Beyan, "Transatlantic Trade and the Coastal Area of Pre-Liberia," The Historian 57, No. 4 (Summer 1995) :760, accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24449267.
 [7] http://www.muslimpopulation.com/africa/Liberia/Liberian%20Muslims%20and%20the%20African%20Napoleon.php

Liberia's Natural Resources

Liberia is a land rich in natural resources including:

• Iron ore
• Gold
• Diamonds
• Timber
• Rubber

As of 2014, Liberia had:

• At least 52 mining companies, 49 of which are wholly foreign-owned
• At least 18 forestry companies, most of which are also foreign-owned
• 4 privately owned oil companies (all foreign-owned: European Hydrocarbons, Anadarko Liberia, Chevron Liberia, and Exxon Mobil) and 1 state-owned oil company (NOCAL - National Oil Company of Liberia) [1]

Discovery of Oil

In 2012, potentially large deposits of oil were discovered off the coast of Liberia. However, the exploration stage and process towards production can last many years. [2] Although there is currently no oil production in Liberia, the country has awarded exploration licenses, and the money from those signature bonuses have contributed nearly 10% of the total government revenues. [3] 

Source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/liberia_econ_1973.jpg

Iron Ore Mining

Prior to 1990, mining had represented 65% of export earnings and 25% of  Liberia's GDP. However, when civil war ravaged the country for the 14 years between 1989 and 2003, all major mines were closed. [4] As of 2013, the mining sector had rebounded, representing 17% of the GDP and 56% of the worth of exports. [5]

Gold

Gold production in Liberia during the war years was at an all-time high. From 1991 to 2002, it never fell below 500 kilograms, with the exception of 1994, when there was no reported gold production. Most years during that time saw levels between 700-1000 kilograms per year. Then, coinciding with the end of the civil war, there was a dramatic drop to between 10 and 110 kilograms between the years 2002 and 2006. 2007 saw a substantial recovery, to over 300 kilograms, and from 2008 until 2012 production averaged between 450 kilograms and 665 kilograms per year. [6] 

More recently, a new commercial gold mine has been opened by the Aureus Mining company. During the month of February 2016 alone, the output was estimated at 255 kilograms (9,000 ounces). [7]

Illegal gold mining, diamond mining, and trade in timber is a serious problem in Liberia which the government is unable to control. The rogue miners dig without safety precautions, and there can be violence over territory. The illicit gold, for example, is then smuggled out of the country and sold to Middle Eastern markets such as Dubai. [8]

Diamonds

Unfortunately, Liberia's natural resources, such as diamonds and timber, were being used to fuel its bloody civil war. As a result, these diamonds were given the name "conflict diamonds" or "blood diamonds". The UN banned importing Liberian diamonds and timber from 2001 and 2003 respectively [9] until mid-2007. [10] 

In the meantime, an international certification program was designed to prevent "conflict diamonds" from being traded, called the Kimberley Process. Since 2007, the following figures represent Liberia's diamond production based on the Kimberley Process: [11]

Year       Carots         Value (USD)
2015 68,575.73 $31,459,636.07
2014 65,822.49 $28,175,134.04
2013 53,699.16 $19,680,742.14
2012 41,985.13 $16,164,275.05
2011 41,932.19 $16,183,202.46
2010 26,590.89 $15,954,534.00
2009 28,368.27 $11,260,572.94
2008 47,006.50 $ 9,891,785.34
2007 21,699.74 $ 2,657,541.58

In recent years, a plant has been discovered in Liberia that may be a good indicator of the location of diamonds. The palm-like plant, called Pandanus candelabrum seems to only grow on top of kimberlite pipes, which bring diamonds to the surface from their birthplace hundreds of kilometers inside the earth. [12]

Pandanus candelabrum - Diamond-loving plant in Liberia

By Marco Schmidt  - Own work (own foto), CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=788015

Timber and Rubber

Aside from mining, the other two major natural resources in Liberia are timber and rubber. Liberia is home to 43% of the Upper Guinea rain forest, so timber plays an important role in the economy, while rubber is the most important cash crop in the country. [13] During the civil war, the sale of timber was used to finance the war, and as such was subject to UN restrictions as well. 



Works Cited:
[1] LEITI Beneficial Ownership Final Report December 2015, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.leiti.org.lr/uploads/2/1/5/6/21569928/leiti_beneficial_ownership_final_report__december__2015.pdf.
[2] John Daly, "Liberia Announces Major Offshore Oil Find," Oilprice.com, February 24, 2012, accessed July 27, 2016, http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Liberia-Announces-Major-Offshore-Oil-Find.html.

[3] "Liberia," Extractive Industries Transparancy Initiative, accessed July 27, 2016, https://eiti.org/Liberia.
[4] Ibid.

[5] "Military: Liberian Economy," GlobalSecurity.org, last updated September 17, 2014, accessed July 28, 2016, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/liberia/economy.htm.

[6] "Liberia: history of gold production," 24hgold.com, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.24hgold.com/english/stat_country_detail.aspx?pays=Liberia&deid=24470B1670.

[7] "Aureus declares commercial production at New Liberty gold mine in Liberia," Mining-technology.com, March 4, 2016, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.mining-technology.com/news/newsaureus-declares-commercial-production-new-liberty-gold-mine-liberia-4829952

[8] African Network of Centres of Investigative Journalism, "Special report: Illegal gold mining in Liberia," Daily Maverick, February 5, 2015, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-02-05-special-report-illegal-gold-mining-in-liberia#.V5l28PkrLIU.

[9] "Liberia," Global Policy Forum of the United Nations, accessed July 27, 2016, https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/index-of-countries-on-the-security-council-agenda/liberia.html.

[10] Warren Hoge, "Liberia: Diamond Ban Lifted," The New York Times, April 28, 2007, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/28/world/africa/28briefs-diamond.html?_r=0.

[11] "Liberia," Kimberley Process, accessed July 27, 2016, https://www.kimberleyprocess.com/en/liberia.

[12] Eric Hand, "Rare African plant signals diamonds beneath the soil," Science Magazine, May 4, 2015, accessed July 27, 2016, http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/05/rare-african-plant-signals-diamonds-beneath-soil.

[13] Asamoah Larbi, "Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Liberia," Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, last revised July 2012, accessed July 28, 2016, http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/Liberia/liberia.htm.

Religions in Liberia

History of Religions in Liberia

Traditionally, all the people groups in Liberia were animists. The Vai was the first Muslim tribe to migrate to Liberia in the 16th century. The Mandingo tribe were also Muslims and came to this area from the western Sudan in the 17th century. [1] Christianity subsequently arrived in the 19th century, with the return of freed slaves from the Americas.

An Array of People Groups

As in many parts of the world, political boundaries in Africa traverse a myriad of people groups, each with its own distinct culture and, often, language. Liberia has close to 40 people groups [2], but only 16 of them are officially recognized tribes. [3]

Source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/liberia_pop_1973.jpg

Religions in Liberia

According to official statistics (the 2008 census):

• 85.5% of Liberians are Christians
• 12.2% of Liberians are Muslims
• 0.5% of Liberians adhere to ethnic religions [4]

However, Patrick Johnstone's 21st Century edition of Operation World paints a different picture: [5]

• 38.33% of Liberians are Christian, with an annual growth rate of +8.6%
• 13% are Muslims with an annual growth rate of +11.3%
• 48.37% practice ethnic religions with an annual growth rate of 7.8%

This disparity can be explained by the fact that many people and many groups incorporate elements of traditional animistic religions into their practice of Christianity or Islam.

The Joshua Project (www.joshuaproject.net) is a worldwide research initiative intended to bring clearer definition to the actual religious beliefs of people groups all around the world. Their determination in the case of Liberia's 16 official ethnic groups is as follows: [6]

   

  5 are classified as predominantly Christian:

• Bassa (518,000) - 68% Christian, 16% Evangelical
• Kru (268,000) - 81% Christian, 17% Evangelical
• Belle (19,000) - 65% Christian, 7.5% Evangelical
• Grebo (365,000) - many groups predominantly Christian (approx. 10% Evangelical)
• Krahn (138,000) - Some Christian, some Ethnic religions

     4 are classified as predominantly Muslim:

• Vai (130,000) - Muslims
• Gola (252,000) - Muslims
• Mandingo or Mandinka (97,000) - Muslims
• Dei (11,000) - Muslims

    

    7 are classified as predominantly following Ethnic religions:

• Kpelle (983,000) - 38% Christian, 20% Evangelical 
• Gio or Dan (186,000) - 25% Christian, 4% Evangelical 
• Loma (241,000) - 15% Christian, 4% Evangelical 
• Kissi (141,000) - 12% Christian, 5% Evangelical 
• Gbandi (103,000) - 10% Christian 
• Mano (367,000) - 8% Christian, 2% Evangelical
• Mende (29,000) - 10% Christian, 1% Evangelical 

Highlights of ethnic religions in Liberia:

• The Kpelle religion focuses on ancestors, forest spirits, and especially on secret societies and the masked spirits that are represented in them. In the Kpelle belief system, there is a vague notion of "a High God who created the world and then retired. They believe in a variety of lesser spirits or genii, including ancestors, personal totems, water spirits, and spirits in magically powerful masks. Witchcraft and sorcery figure prominently in the belief system." [7]
• The Dan (or Gio) believe in a creator god, but not "that man can reach this god; thus, they do not worship him. Instead, a spiritual power called Du acts as mediator between the people and the supreme god. Du is said to really be the spirit located in each person. The Dan believe in reincarnation, in which the Du, or spirit, of a person can pass into another person or even an animal after death." [8] The Gio were one of the tribes most feared in colonial times because of their cannibalistic practices. [9]
• A major role in the religion of the Kissi people in ancestor worship or praying to deceased relatives. "The ancestral spirits act as mediators between them and the creator god," and the people represent these spirits with small stone statues. "They are worshiped and offered sacrifices by the village headmen." Witchcraft is commonplace, and people often wear charms as protection from evil spirits. Their lives are plagued with fear of the supernatural. Trances and hypnosis are often vehicles by which religious leaders communicate with spirits. Since the forest is believed to be a sacred place, this is usually where rituals are carried out. [10]
• According to the Mano, Wala is "the creator god who lives in heaven. However, the Mano have little idea of what heaven or life after death is really like. The Mano believe that small men or goblins live in the bush. The goblins are thought to be ghosts who have friendly relationships with people. However, the Mano believe that goblins may kill anyone who destroys their homes by clearing the land. Witchcraft also plays an important role in Mano beliefs. Witches often curse and sometimes kill their victims." [11] In colonial times, the Mano were feared because of their cannibalism. [12]
• The Mende believe in Ngewo, creator of the universe and all spirits. [13] They may not be very numerous in Liberia, but their influence is extremely widespread in their belief in the secret societies of the Poro (for men) and the Sande (for women).

Secret Societies

Native Christian workers from Liberia see secret societies as a deeply ingrained facet of the culture, and one that is not neutral in nature:

"Before the advent of Christianity in the 19th century, Liberia was a land of strongly entrenched and institutionalized secret societies involving almost every people group. While the culture and tradition of the Liberian people were the connecting link enabling them to maintain their common identity and life, there were (and still are) elements, which impede their socio-economic development and keep them in spiritual darkness." [14]

The following statement by the U.S. State Department gives further insight into this darkness:

"Ethnic groups in all regions participate in the indigenous religious practices of secret societies, such as the Poro (for men) and Sande (for women). Secret societies teach traditional customs and skills to initiate youth into adulthood. In some cases Sande societies practice female genital mutilation." [15] *

*According to the World Health Organization, 66% of Liberian women aged 15-49 have been subjected to female genital mutilation. [16]

 Other dark practices also continue to plague Liberian society, including voodoo and ritual killing. [17] The secret Leopard society, now outlawed, was one of the most notorious for its involvement in such activities.

Origin Myths: The Mano People [18]

     “As to their origin, the Mano “standard” version runs as follows: The first Mano was a man named Zo Massakollo and he descended from the sky on a chain to a place called Misalu. This town was located in Mandingo territory but inhabited by Mano, it was later taken over by the Mandingo. Zo Massakollo became very rich and had a large family. When he died, his children started to quarrel over their father’s property. Because of this quarrelling, Gao, one of Zo Massakollo’s sons, left Misalu and went south and he finally settled in the Wi area near the present Sakleipie. He married there and had two sons, Zo Mia and Zo Fie.

“His sons were great hunters who, after the death of their father, set out on a hunting expedition. During this hunt they lost their way and finally got to Baytonwee, a town in what is now the Yamein clan.

     “They settled there, married and had many children. Zo Mia’s sons later found a number of towns in Guinea and the sons of Zo Fie built some of the towns now belonging to the Yamein clan. According to a number of genealogies collected in the clan, Zo Mia and Zo Fie lived nine generations ago.”

Creation Myth of the Mano People: [19]

Wala created man, and appointed one of them to be the big man or chief. Some time later, the big man complained that the others wouldn’t listen to him, and asked Wala to give him someone to help. In response, Wala created a woman out of seedlings. The big man immediately sent the woman for water, but she refused. Again, the big man complained to Wala, but Wala told him to go back to the woman, as she was the only one who was going to listen to him.

Wala tried to have the water, the wind and the fire to take care of and rule the people, but each time they complained out of fear of what these forces could do to them.

Wala sent the big man and his woman to Wala’s farm, where they were instructed not to eat any of the crops. Instead, dog was there to take care of them and catch animals for them to eat. However, the big man and his woman would cook the meat along with some of the crops growing on the farm, so dog reported this to Wala. At first, Wala just sent the dog back to take care of them. Then the couple had children and grandchildren. When Wala came to visit them and saw that they had eaten the crops he had said not to, he told them they would now become mortals. Then the big man and his woman killed the dog out of revenge for telling Wala what they had done.

In other versions of the Mano creation story, the tribes come from Wala marrying a woman or from Wala creating a man and a woman sent down to earth, and their descendants became the various tribes. In areas touched by outside influences, the creation myth follows more of the Biblical narrative, where Wala first created animals, plants and finally humans made of clay: “…Some of the clay-figures Wala burned in the fire and they became the black people and those which he did not burn became the white people.” [20]

Liberia is a land of diversity and mystery. Though many aspects of the tribal histories and religious beliefs may remain that way, the future lies open ahead of them, to see what they will make of it. 

---

[1] Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, "The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822," Liberia Past and Present, accessed July 19, 2016, 
[2] “Country: Liberia,” Joshua Project, accessed July 19, 2016, https://joshuaproject.net/countries/LI.

[3] “Liberia,” Wikipedia, last modified July 21, 2016, accessed July 21, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia#Ethnic_groups.

[4] "International Religious Freedom Report: Liberia," U.S. State Department, November 17, 2010, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148698.htm.

[5] “History of Liberia,” Vision Liberia 2027, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.liberia2027.com/627324.

[6] “Country: Liberia,” Joshua Project, accessed July 19, 2016, https://joshuaproject.net/countries/LI.

http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.

[7] "Kpelle - Religion and Expressive Culture," World Culture Encyclopedia, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Kpelle-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html#ixzz4EtKxs9sL.

[8] "Dan, Da in Liberia," Joshua Project, accessed July 19, 2016, https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11485/LI.

[9] Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, "The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822," Liberia Past and Present, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.

[10] "Kissi Tribe: Tribal People of Africa," Gateway Africa, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.gateway-africa.com/tribe/Kissi_tribe.html.

[11] “Mano, Mah in Liberia,” Joshua Project, accessed July 19, 2016, https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/16121/LI.

[12]Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, “The Grain Coast, Malaguetta Coast or Pepper Coast before 1822,” Liberia Past and Present, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/Peppercoastbefore1822.htm.

[13] John R. Hinnells, ed., “Mende Religion,” A New Dictionary of Religions, Blackwell Reference Online, 1995, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631181392_chunk_g978063118139214_ss1-75.

[14] “History of Liberia,” Vision Liberia 2027, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.liberia2027.com/627324.

[15] "International Religious Freedom Report: Liberia," U.S. State Department, November 17, 2010, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148698.htm.

[16] “Female genital mutilation (FGM),” World Health Organization, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/.

[17] Dr. Fred P.M. Van der Kraaij, “Ritual Killings Past and Present,” Liberia Past and Present, accessed July 19, 2016, http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/RitualKillingsIndex.htm.

[18] Kjell Zetterstrom, "Some Notes on Mano Beliefs," Paideuma 18 (1972): 172-73, accessed July 20, 2016, http:///www.jstor.org/stable/40341526.

[19] Ibid., 173-74.

[20] Ibid., 175.

Preserving Liberia's Traditional History

Like most countries in Africa, Liberia's written history did not begin to appear until quite recently, in the 19th century. [1] However, there are other art forms that can give us insight into Liberia's cultural past, including art, music, and dance.

Art

One of Liberia's most characteristic art forms are masks and human heads, both life-size and miniature. Even today, masks are believed to be a link between the ancestral spirits and pagan gods, and are used in various rituals. The idea is for the dancer to "become" the mask.[2] Three important masks are the Vai mask and the Yan mask from the Gola, Vai, and Mendi tribes, and the Dan mask from the Gio tribe. [3]

The mask below is a miniature Dan mask made of wood in the 19th-20th century, 4 3/4 inches high and 2 3/4 wide. The miniature masks are thought to hold the same protective properties as if you have the full-size mask.
                                                
Source: http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/314158

Another type of art that is prevalent in Liberia is enlarged sculptures of utensils, such as forks, spoons and combs [4]:


                                                           
Source: By cliff1066 - Flickr [1], CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5046833

Music and Dance

Musically, Liberia does share many characteristics with other West African countries, but it also has several unique features all its own. Various types of drums are used in traditional Liberian music, as well instruments called Saassaa, which are beaded gourd rattles, and xylophone-type instruments such as the Yomo Gor.[5]

Even today, music and dance in Liberia is more than just entertainment. It is often used to communicate and educate in areas of politics, human rights and more. Below is a tribal war dance from Liberia in the 1970s, courtesy of Vimeo:

Source: https://vimeo.com/18332050

Oral Histories

Music and dance often accompanies the oral histories that are passed down from generation to generation by storytellers. However, the African concept of history is vastly different from the western concept. For one thing, the concept of time is not one attached to fixed dates on a calendar. Secondly, the stories are often utilitarian; in other words, stories are told that are useful somehow. One fairly obvious way that histories can be useful is to establish the legitimacy of the authority of the current chief.

Anthropologist Matthew H. Hill, in his study of the Mende tribe, observed the prevalence of a "stereotyped episode" in the oral histories which he calls "the hunter / founder": 

"Briefly stated, a hunter slays an elephant and establishes a camp around the carcass while he and his followers consume it. This group and their camp become the nucleus of a town under the leadership of the elephant killer." [6]

The translated account he provides is as follows:

“Fa Kombo-Fa from Kono, Mandingo or Koranko, Fa Kombo said to be a Kono man – when he came he was a hunter – Elephants Shot Elephant which died in the heart of town – Built huts around and invited people to come and take share – after consuming whole animal roamed about for another made K(omboya) a permanent place of r hunting from There was a man called gbalegbe helped from village – One Pa Mbawove came, on pa gbagbawa came another pa Kaliwa came, his brother Hamuwa came with him and he they started to extend the town – last of all the existing father humuwa was leader after others died his brother Gafwe the pa telling story saw – interruptions. When Gafwe died son gbebe succeeded him Gafwe was alive when 1^st Europeans visited area.”[7]

Hill points out that, "Rather than being a description of actual events, it serves in Mende oral histories as a symbolic statement validating contemporary authority patterns....Like other Mende town histories I have heard, the Komboya history begins only a few generations before the narrator’s youth. The beginning point is one which permits each of the auditors, who is significant in the local authority pattern, to have an ancestor appear in a setting which attaches him to the founder. The aim is to tell not as much as is possible but as little as is necessary."[8]

He goes on to hypothesize that perhaps the elephant in the story is actually symbolic of a previous chief, particularly since the Mende believe it is possible for humans to take the form of animals and vice versa: "...It is tempting to regard the elephant as being itself identified with earlier holders of authority, to make the equation: slaying and elephant = displacing a chief," particularly given the shallow depth of the history and understanding that founding a chiefdom is not the equivalent of first settling a place.[9]

The curious minds among us will just have to accept that, for now, many of our questions about the history of the peoples of Africa will have to remain unanswered, and will have to find solace and inspiration in the evidence that has been left to us.

[1] "Culture of Liberia," Wikipedia, last modified July 4, 2016, accessed July 15, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Liberia.
[2] "Miniature Mask: Dan Peoples," The Met, accessed July 15, 2016, http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/314158.
[3] "Masked Dances of Liberia," Worlds Art West, accessed July 15, 2016, http://worldartswest.org/main/discipline.asp?i=8.
[4] "Culture of Liberia," Wikipedia, last modified July 4, 2016, accessed July 15, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Liberia.
[5] "Culture of Liberia," Wikipedia, last modified July 4, 2016, accessed July 15, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Liberia.
[6] Matthew H. Hill, "Where to Begin? The Place of the Hunter Founder in Mende Histories," Anthropos 79, no. 4/6 (1984): 653, accessed July 20, 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40461886.
[7] Ibid., 654.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid., 655.

The Geography of Liberia

     The country of Liberia is one with a fascinating story. The American Colonization Society began scouting out the area for a settlement here on what is called the "Pepper Coast" in 1822. It was meant to be a way of repatriating African Americans who had been taken during the Atlantic slave trade. Hence, its name, which means "Land of the Free," holds a deep and noble meaning. It later declared its independence as country in 1847 and was recognized as such by the United States following the Civil War. This made it Africa's first and oldest republic, and the only republic in Africa to have gained its independence through proclamation and not armed revolt.

     
     Liberia is bordered by the Ivory Coast to the east, Guinea to the north, Sierra Leone to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Its capital, Monrovia, named after U.S. President James Monroe, is located in the northern half of the Atlantic coast. Its area of 43,000 square miles covers a coastal region characterized by swamps and mangroves in some areas, a hilly region of rainforest that rises to a plateau, and an area of deciduous forests in the mountainous northeastern part of the country. There is a range of the West African Mountains in Liberia as well as the Guinea Highlands. It shares its highest peak at 5748 feet, Mount Nimba, with neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. There are also several major rivers in the country, including the St. Paul, the St. John, the Cestos and the longest, the Cavalla. 


     Located between 4 and 9 degrees north and 7 and 12 degrees west, Liberia has an equatorial climate, with heavy rainfall particularly from May until July and August until October. During the winter months (November - March), Liberia experiences troublesome winds called "harmattan" carrying dust sweeping in from the Sahara dessert.

Source: "Liberia", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia